In several species of fish, such as the cichlid species Neolamprologus pulcher, it is common for subordinate females to help an unrelated dominant breeding pair raise their young. The reason behind this seemingly altruistic behaviour, known as alloparental care, has puzzled scientists for many years and one of the most widely spread hypotheses put forward has been the ‘pay-to-stay’ hypothesis. According to the ‘pay-to-stay’ rationale, the subordinate female helps out the dominant pair just to be able to stay in the group. Not being ostracised from the group augments her long-term survival chances, thus increasing the chance for her to live long enough to eventually obtain a breeding position.

Picture by: JJPhoto.dk

A new study carried out by Dik Heg and coauthors does however bring forth a new hypothesis: the substrate rationale. In their study, Heg and his colleges tested the hypothesis that subordinate female cichlids are helping dominant pairs in return for a more immediate direct reproductive benefit. After a series of experiments where the total number of eggs produced over a 30 day period by dominant and subordinate Neolamprologus pulcher females were carefully counted, researchers found that a subordinate female helping out a dominant pair was more likely to produce eggs herself compared to other subordinate females.

According to Heg and coauthors, the most likely reason for the increased reproductive success of “fish nannies” is that the subordinate female gains access to the breeding substrate.

If you wish to read more, see the paper “Heg, D, E Jutzeler, JS Mitchell and IM Hamilton (2009) Helpful female subordinate cichlids are more likely to reproduce”. It has been published in the journal PLoS ONE.

Here at AC Tropical Fish, we believe in the Jude Law-hypothesis. The dominant female will naturally snatch away the most prosperous male, but by posing as a benevolent nanny even a subordinate female can gain access to his home and hope for some of his triumphant DNA to eventually find its way into the genetic make up of her own offspring.

In a new study on Tanganyika cichlids, three scientists[1] [2] [3] from Uppsala University in Sweden have shown that intricate rearing behaviour varies with brain size in females. The only previously published study showing similar patterns concerned predatory animals.

Tropheus moori – one of the species used in the study. – Picture www.jjphoto.dk

How the vertebrate brain has developed throughout the course of evolution is still not clear, and we are still not certain if brain functions in a specific species develop to match a demanding environment. One way of learning more about this is to compare brain size and structure in closely related species living under dissimilar circumstances.

“It is important to look at differences between males and females since females often distinguish themselves from males, both in behaviour and appearance”, says Niclas Kolm, lead-author of the study.

The study looked for correlations between brain size and ecological factors in a large number of specimens from 39 different species of Tanganyika cichlid. Lake Tanganyika is especially suitable for this type of study since it is inhabited by cichlid groups exhibiting significant dissimilarities in both brain structure and ecology, and whose ancestry is well known. Tanganyika cichlids varies dramatically from species to species when it comes to factors such as body size, diet, habitat, parental care, partner selection, dissimilarities between the sexes, mating behaviour, and brain structure.

The result of the study showed a correlation between brain size and the two factors diet and parental care behaviour. Species where only the female fish cares for egg and fry turned out to have bigger brains than species where both parents engage in parental care. The brain was however only larger in females; there was no difference in brain size between males of the two groups.

The largest brains of all were found in algae-eating cichlids. These fishes live in environments characterized by a high level of social interaction. “This indicates that social environment have played a role in brain development”, says Kolm.

The study was published in the web version of “Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B” on September 17. You can find it here (http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/j114062824820l76/).

Compared to just over a century ago, the pH-value of the sea’s surface water has gone down by 0.1 (i.e. 25 percent). This has caught the attention of Jon Havenhand and Michael Thorndyke, researchers at the University of Gothenburg, and they have together with colleagues in Australia studied if and how this decrease affects marine animals.

spatangus purpuerus – Sea urchin

As part of the study, Havenhand and Thorndyke used sea urchins of the species Heliocidaris erythrogramma to study reproduction. Sea urchins reproduce by releasing eggs that are fertilized out in the open water. In the study, Havenhand and Thorndyke studied breeding sea urchins in water where the pH-value had been lowered from its normal 8.1 down to 7.7. This might not sound as a significant drop, but a change from 8.1 to 7.7 means that the water becomes three times as acidic as before.

Havenhand and Thorndyke found out that in this changed environment, the sea urchins’ ability to reproduce was decreased by 25 percent. The low pH-value made the sperm swim slower than normally and move less effectively, which lowered the fertilization rate. But the problems didn’t stop here; when an egg was fertilized, the low pH-value could interfere with larval development and this too decreased the amount of eggs that actually developed into healthy sea urchin larvae.

More research is now needed to find out if these reproductive problems linked to acidification can be observed in other marine animals as well.